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Sexual coercion
Sexual coercion in animals is the use of violence, threats, harassment, and other tactics to help them forcefully copulate.〔Smuts, Barbara B. Male Aggression and Sexual Coercion of Females in Nonhuman Primates and Other Mammals: Evidence and Theoretical Implications. Advances in the Study of Behavior 22 (1993)〕 Such behavior has been compared to sexual assault, including rape, among humans.〔Stamos, David N., ''Evolution and the Big Questions: Sex, Race, Religion, and Other Matters'', John Wiley & Sons, 2011; Alcock, John, ''The Triumph of Sociobiology'', Oxford University Press, 2003, p.207-9.〕
In nature, males and females usually differ in reproductive fitness optima.〔Han, C. S. & Jablonski, P. G. Female genitalia concealment promotes intimate male courtship in a water strider. PloS one 4, e5793 (2009).〕 Males generally prefer to maximize their number of offspring, and therefore their number of mates; females, on the other hand, tend to care more for their offspring and have fewer mates.〔Gage, M. J. G., Parker, G. a, Nylin, S. & Wiklund, C. Sexual selection and speciation in mammals, butterflies and spiders. Proceedings. Biological sciences / The Royal Society 269, 2309–16 (2002).〕 Because of this, there are generally more males available to mate at a given time, making females a limited resource.〔〔 This leads males to evolve aggressive mating behaviors which can help them acquire mates.〔Grayson, K. L., De Lisle, S. P., Jackson, J. E., Black, S. J. & Crespi, E. J. Behavioral and physiological female responses to male sex ratio bias in a pond-breeding amphibian. Frontiers in zoology 9, 24 (2012).〕
Sexual coercion has been observed in many species, including mammals, birds, insects, and fish.〔Garner, S. R., Bortoluzzi, R. N., Heath, D. D. & Neff, B. D. Sexual conflict inhibits female mate choice for major histocompatibility complex dissimilarity in Chinook salmon. Proceedings. Biological sciences / The Royal Society 277, 885–94 (2010).〕 While sexual coercion does help increase male fitness, it is very often costly to females.〔 However, in spite of these costs, a possible benefit to the females is a chance to test the stamina of the males, so that only those with "good genes" will father their offspring.〔Puniamoorthy, N., Su, K. F.-Y. & Meier, R. Bending for love: losses and gains of sexual dimorphisms are strictly correlated with changes in the mounting position of sepsid flies (Sepsidae: Diptera). BMC evolutionary biology 8, 155 (2008).〕 Sexual coercion has been observed to have consequences, such as intersexual coevolution, speciation, and sexual dimorphism.〔〔Rönn, J., Katvala, M. & Arnqvist, G. Coevolution between harmful male genitalia and female resistance in seed beetles. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 104, 10921–5 (2007).〕
==Male adaptations==
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